What Is Chemical Makeup Of Nucleus O-phos

Chemic element, symbol P and atomic number 15

Phosphorus, ₁₅ P

Waxy white Light red Nighttime red and violet
Phosphorus
Pronunciation	​( FOS-fər-əs)
Allotropes	white, red, violet, black and others (encounter Allotropes of phosphorus)
Advent	white, red and violet are waxy, black is metal-looking
Standard atomic weight A r°(P)	xxx.973761 998 ±0.000000 005 thirty.974±0.001 (abridged)[one]
Abundance
in the Earth's crust	v.ii (silicon = 100)
Phosphorus in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson Due north ↑ P ↓ As silicon ← phosphorus → sulfur
Atomic number (Z)	15
Group	grouping xv (pnictogens)
Period	menstruation 3
Block	p-cake
Electron configuration	[Ne] 3sii 3p3
Electrons per shell	two, 8, 5
Concrete properties
Stage atSTP	solid
Melting indicate	white: 317.3 K ​(44.15 °C, ​111.5 °F) ruby-red: ∼860 Chiliad (∼590 °C, ∼1090 °F)[2]
Boiling point	white: 553.seven K ​(280.5 °C, ​536.9 °F)
Sublimation betoken	red: ≈689.two–863 Grand ​(≈416–590 °C, ​≈780.eight–1094 °F) violet: 893 Thousand (620 °C, 1148 °F)
Density (nearr.t.)	white: 1.823 g/cmthree red: ≈2.2–2.34 k/cm3 violet: 2.36 g/cm3 black: two.69 thousand/cm3
Heat of fusion	white: 0.66 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporisation	white: 51.9 kJ/mol
Molar heat chapters	white: 23.824 J/(mol·Chiliad)
Vapour pressure (white) P (Pa) 1 x 100 1 k ten k 100 k at T (K) 279 307 342 388 453 549
Vapour pressure (red, b.p. 431 °C) P (Pa) i 10 100 1 k 10 grand 100 1000 at T (G) 455 489 529 576 635 704
Diminutive properties
Oxidation states	−3 , −2, −ane, 0,[3] +1,[iv] +2, +3 , +4, +v (a mildly acidic oxide)
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: two.19
Ionisation energies	1st: 1011.8 kJ/mol 2nd: 1907 kJ/mol 3rd: 2914.1 kJ/mol (more)
Covalent radius	107±iii pm
Van der Waals radius	180 pm
Spectral lines of phosphorus
Other properties
Natural occurrence	primordial
Crystal structure	​body-centred cubic (bcc)
Thermal electrical conductivity	white: 0.236 West/(m⋅Thousand) blackness: 12.ane West/(k⋅K)
Magnetic ordering	white, red, violet, black: diamagnetic[5]
Molar magnetic susceptibility	−xx.eight×10−6  cm3/mol (293 Chiliad)[vi]
Bulk modulus	white: 5 GPa red: 11 GPa
CAS Number	7723-14-0 (cerise) 12185-10-iii (white)
History
Discovery	Hennig Brand (1669)
Recognised as an element past	Antoine Lavoisier[7] (1777)
Principal isotopes of phosphorus
Iso­tope Abun­dance Half-life (t 1/2) Decay mode Pro­duct 31P 100% stable 32P trace 14.28 d β− 32S 33P trace 25.3 d β− 33Southward
Category: Phosphorus view talk edit | references

Phosphorus is a chemical chemical element with the symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental phosphorus exists in ii major forms, white phosphorus and reddish phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a costless element on Earth. Information technology has a concentration in the Earth'due south chaff of virtually one gram per kilogram (compare copper at almost 0.06 grams). In minerals, phosphorus generally occurs as phosphate.

Elemental phosphorus was first isolated as white phosphorus in 1669. White phosphorus emits a faint glow when exposed to oxygen – hence the name, taken from Greek mythology, Φωσφόρος significant 'light-bearer' (Latin Lucifer ), referring to the "Morning Star", the planet Venus. The term phosphorescence, meaning glow after illumination, derives from this holding of phosphorus, although the word has since been used for a different concrete procedure that produces a glow. The glow of phosphorus is caused past oxidation of the white (but not red) phosphorus — a process now called chemiluminescence. Together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen.

Phosphorus is an element essential to sustaining life largely through phosphates, compounds containing the phosphate ion, PO_iv ³⁻. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and phospholipids, circuitous compounds cardinal to cells. Elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and os ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines comprise fossils considering phosphate is present in the fossilized deposits of animal remains and excreta. Low phosphate levels are an of import limit to growth in some aquatic systems. The vast majority of phosphorus compounds mined are consumed every bit fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to supplant the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, and its annual demand is rise nearly twice as fast equally the growth of the man population. Other applications include organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents.

Characteristics

Allotropes

Phosphorus has several allotropes that showroom strikingly diverse properties.^[viii] The 2 about common allotropes are white phosphorus and ruby-red phosphorus.^[nine]

From the perspective of applications and chemic literature, the virtually important grade of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, oftentimes abbreviated equally WP. Information technology is a soft, waxy solid which consists of tetrahedral P
₄ molecules, in which each atom is bound to the other three atoms by a formal single bond. This P
₄ tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C (one,470 °F) when it starts decomposing to P
₂ molecules.^[x] The P
₄ molecule in the gas phase has a P-P bail length of r _g = two.1994(three) Å as was determined by gas electron diffraction.^[11] The nature of bonding in this P
_iv tetrahedron can be described past spherical aromaticity or cluster bonding, that is the electrons are highly delocalized. This has been illustrated by calculations of the magnetically induced currents, which sum upwards to 29 nA/T, much more in the archetypical effluvious molecule benzene (11 nA/T).^[eleven]

White phosphorus exists in 2 crystalline forms: α (alpha) and β (beta). At room temperature, the α-form is stable. It is more mutual, has cubic crystal structure and at 195.two One thousand (−78.0 °C), information technology transforms into β-form, which has hexagonal crystal construction. These forms differ in terms of the relative orientations of the elective P₄ tetrahedra.^{[12] [xiii]} The β form of white phosphorus contains three slightly different P
₄ molecules, i.e. xviii different P-P bond lengths between two.1768(v) and 2.1920(5) Å. The boilerplate P-P bond length is 2.183(5) Å.^[xiv]

White phosphorus is the least stable, the near reactive, the virtually volatile, the least dense and the most toxic of the allotropes. White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always contain some red phosphorus and appropriately appear yellow. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure (e.yard., weapons-form, not lab-grade WP) is as well called yellow phosphorus. When exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the nighttime with a very faint tinge of greenish and blue. It is highly flammable and pyrophoric (self-igniting) upon contact with air. Owing to its pyrophoricity, white phosphorus is used as an condiment in napalm. The aroma of combustion of this form has a feature garlic smell, and samples are commonly coated with white "phosphorus pentoxide", which consists of P
_four O
₁₀ tetrahedra with oxygen inserted between the phosphorus atoms and at their vertices. White phosphorus is insoluble in water only soluble in carbon disulfide.^[15]

Thermal decomposition of P₄ at 1100 Yard gives diphosphorus, P_two. This species is not stable as a solid or liquid. The dimeric unit contains a triple bail and is analogous to N₂. It tin can also be generated equally a transient intermediate in solution by thermolysis of organophosphorus precursor reagents.^[16] At still higher temperatures, P₂ dissociates into atomic P.^[xv]

Properties of some allotropes of phosphorus^{[8] [17]}

Form	white(α)	white(β)	ruby	violet	black
Symmetry	Body-centred cubic	Triclinic	Baggy	Monoclinic	Orthorhombic
Pearson symbol		aP24		mP84	oS8
Space group	I43m	P1 No.2		P2/c No.13	Cmca No.64
Density (thou/cmthree)	1.828	1.88	~2.2	two.36	2.69
Ring gap (eV)	2.1		i.8	one.5	0.34
Refractive alphabetize	one.8244			2.6	2.iv

Red phosphorus is polymeric in structure. Information technology can exist viewed as a derivative of P_iv wherein one P-P bond is broken, and ane additional bond is formed with the neighbouring tetrahedron resulting in chains of P₂₁ molecules linked by van der Waals forces.^[18] Red phosphorus may be formed by heating white phosphorus to 250 °C (482 °F) or by exposing white phosphorus to sunlight.^[19] Phosphorus afterwards this handling is amorphous. Upon further heating, this material crystallises. In this sense, red phosphorus is not an allotrope, but rather an intermediate stage between the white and violet phosphorus, and most of its properties have a range of values. For example, freshly prepared, bright cherry phosphorus is highly reactive and ignites at well-nigh 300 °C (572 °F),^[20] though it is more stable than white phosphorus, which ignites at almost 30 °C (86 °F).^[21] After prolonged heating or storage, the colour darkens (come across infobox images); the resulting production is more stable and does non spontaneously ignite in air.^[22]

Violet phosphorus is a course of phosphorus that tin can be produced by solar day-long annealing of reddish phosphorus above 550 °C. In 1865, Hittorf discovered that when phosphorus was recrystallised from molten lead, a ruby-red/purple course is obtained. Therefore, this form is sometimes known every bit "Hittorf'southward phosphorus" (or violet or α-metal phosphorus).^[17]

Black phosphorus is the least reactive allotrope and the thermodynamically stable form below 550 °C (1,022 °F). It is also known as β-metallic phosphorus and has a structure somewhat resembling that of graphite.^{[23] [24]} It is obtained by heating white phosphorus under high pressures (about 12,000 standard atmospheres or i.2 gigapascals). It can as well be produced at ambient weather using metal salts, e.k. mercury, as catalysts.^[25] In appearance, properties, and construction, it resembles graphite, being black and flaky, a conductor of electricity, and has puckered sheets of linked atoms.^[26]

Some other form, blood-red phosphorus, is obtained by assuasive a solution of white phosphorus in carbon disulfide to evaporate in sunlight.^[17]

Chemiluminescence

White phosphorus exposed to air glows in the night

When outset isolated, it was observed that the green glow emanating from white phosphorus would persist for a time in a stoppered jar, but then cease. Robert Boyle in the 1680s ascribed information technology to "debilitation" of the air. Actually, it is oxygen being consumed. By the 18th century, it was known that in pure oxygen, phosphorus does not glow at all;^[27] there is only a range of partial pressures at which it does. Oestrus can be practical to drive the reaction at college pressures.^[28]

In 1974, the glow was explained past R. J. van Zee and A. U. Khan.^{[29] [xxx]} A reaction with oxygen takes identify at the surface of the solid (or liquid) phosphorus, forming the short-lived molecules HPO and P
₂ O
₂ that both emit visible light. The reaction is boring and only very little of the intermediates are required to produce the brilliance, hence the extended time the glow continues in a stoppered jar.

Since its discovery, phosphors and phosphorescence were used loosely to describe substances that shine in the dark without burning. Although the term phosphorescence is derived from phosphorus, the reaction that gives phosphorus its glow is properly called chemiluminescence (glowing due to a common cold chemic reaction), not phosphorescence (re-emitting light that previously fell onto a substance and excited it).^[31]

Isotopes

At that place are 23 known isotopes of phosphorus,^[32] ranging from ²⁵
P to ⁴⁷
P.^[33] Just ³¹
P is stable and is therefore present at 100% abundance. The half-integer nuclear spin and high abundance of ³¹P make phosphorus-31 NMR spectroscopy a very useful belittling tool in studies of phosphorus-containing samples.

Two radioactive isotopes of phosphorus have half-lives suitable for biological scientific experiments. These are:

• ³²
  P, a beta-emitter (1.71 MeV) with a one-half-life of fourteen.3 days, which is used routinely in life-science laboratories, primarily to produce radiolabeled DNA and RNA probes, e.g. for use in Northern blots or Southern blots.
• ³³
  P, a beta-emitter (0.25 MeV) with a one-half-life of 25.four days. It is used in life-science laboratories in applications in which lower free energy beta emissions are advantageous such as Deoxyribonucleic acid sequencing.

The high energy beta particles from ³²
P penetrate skin and corneas and any ³²
P ingested, inhaled, or absorbed is readily incorporated into bone and nucleic acids. For these reasons, Occupational Safety and Health Administration in the United States, and similar institutions in other adult countries require personnel working with ³²
P to article of clothing lab coats, disposable gloves, and safety spectacles or goggles to protect the optics, and avoid working directly over open up containers. Monitoring personal, habiliment, and surface contamination is besides required. Shielding requires special consideration. The high free energy of the beta particles gives rise to secondary emission of 10-rays via Bremsstrahlung (braking radiations) in dense shielding materials such as lead. Therefore, the radiation must be shielded with low density materials such as acrylic or other plastic, water, or (when transparency is not required), even wood.^[34]

Occurrence

Universe

In 2013, astronomers detected phosphorus in Cassiopeia A, which confirmed that this chemical element is produced in supernovae as a byproduct of supernova nucleosynthesis. The phosphorus-to-iron ratio in material from the supernova remnant could be up to 100 times college than in the Milky Style in general.^[35]

In 2020, astronomers analysed ALMA and ROSINA data from the massive star-forming region AFGL 5142, to detect phosphorus-bearing molecules and how they are carried in comets to the early Globe.^{[36] [37]}

Chaff and organic sources

Phosphorus has a concentration in the Earth's chaff of near one gram per kilogram (compare copper at about 0.06 grams). Information technology is non found gratis in nature, just is widely distributed in many minerals, commonly every bit phosphates.^[nine] Inorganic phosphate rock, which is partially made of apatite (a group of minerals being, generally, pentacalcium triorthophosphate fluoride (hydroxide)), is today the master commercial source of this element. According to the US Geological Survey (USGS), nearly 50 pct of the global phosphorus reserves are in the Arab nations.^[38] 85% of World's known reserves are in Kingdom of morocco with smaller deposits in Red china, Russia,^[39] Florida, Idaho, Tennessee, Utah, and elsewhere.^[40] Albright and Wilson in the Great britain and their Niagara Falls institute, for example, were using phosphate rock in the 1890s and 1900s from Tennessee, Florida, and the Îles du Connétable (guano island sources of phosphate); by 1950, they were using phosphate rock mainly from Tennessee and Northward Africa.^[41]

Organic sources, namely urine, os ash and (in the latter 19th century) guano, were historically of importance only had but limited commercial success.^[42] As urine contains phosphorus, it has fertilising qualities which are however harnessed today in some countries, including Sweden, using methods for reuse of excreta. To this end, urine can exist used every bit a fertiliser in its pure grade or part of being mixed with water in the form of sewage or sewage sludge.

Compounds

Phosphorus(V)

The tetrahedral construction of P₄O₁₀ and P₄S_x.

The most prevalent compounds of phosphorus are derivatives of phosphate (PO₄ ³⁻), a tetrahedral anion.^[43] Phosphate is the cohabit base of phosphoric acid, which is produced on a massive scale for utilise in fertilisers. Existence triprotic, phosphoric acid converts stepwise to three conjugate bases:

H_iiiPO₄ + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + H_twoPO_four ⁻ K _a1 = 7.25×10⁻³

H_twoPO_four ⁻ + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + HPO₄ ^two− Yard _a2 = 6.31×10⁻⁸

HPO₄ ^two− + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ +  PO₄ ³⁻ K _a3 = 3.98×10^−thirteen

Phosphate exhibits a tendency to form chains and rings containing P-O-P bonds. Many polyphosphates are known, including ATP. Polyphosphates arise by aridity of hydrogen phosphates such as HPO₄ ⁱⁱ⁻ and H₂PO₄ ⁻. For case, the industrially of import pentasodium triphosphate (too known as sodium tripolyphosphate, STPP) is produced industrially on by the megatonne past this condensation reaction:

2 Na₂[(HO)PO₃] + Na[(HO)_iiPO_ii] → Na₅[O₃P-O-P(O)_two-O-PO_iii] + 2 H₂O

Phosphorus pentoxide (P₄O_x) is the acrid anhydride of phosphoric acrid, only several intermediates between the 2 are known. This waxy white solid reacts vigorously with water.

With metallic cations, phosphate forms a multifariousness of salts. These solids are polymeric, featuring P-O-M linkages. When the metallic cation has a charge of 2+ or 3+, the salts are mostly insoluble, hence they exist as common minerals. Many phosphate salts are derived from hydrogen phosphate (HPO₄ ²⁻).

PCl_five and PF₅ are mutual compounds. PF_five is a colourless gas and the molecules have trigonal bipyramidal geometry. PCl₅ is a colourless solid which has an ionic conception of PCl_iv ⁺ PCl₆ ⁻, just adopts the trigonal bipyramidal geometry when molten or in the vapour phase.^[15] PBr₅ is an unstable solid formulated every bit PBr₄ ⁺Br⁻and PI₅ is non known.^[15] The pentachloride and pentafluoride are Lewis acids. With fluoride, PF₅ forms PF₆ ⁻, an anion that is isoelectronic with SF₆. The virtually of import oxyhalide is phosphorus oxychloride, (POCl₃), which is approximately tetrahedral.

Before all-encompassing figurer calculations were feasible, it was thought that bonding in phosphorus(Five) compounds involved d orbitals. Computer modeling of molecular orbital theory indicates that this bonding involves just s- and p-orbitals.^[44]

Phosphorus(3)

All iv symmetrical trihalides are well known: gaseous PF_three, the yellow liquids PCl₃ and PBr₃, and the solid PI_three. These materials are moisture sensitive, hydrolysing to give phosphorous acrid. The trichloride, a mutual reagent, is produced by chlorination of white phosphorus:

P₄ + 6 Cl₂ → 4 PCl₃

The trifluoride is produced from the trichloride past halide substitution. PF₃ is toxic because it binds to haemoglobin.

Phosphorus(3) oxide, P_ivO_vi (too called tetraphosphorus hexoxide) is the anhydride of P(OH)₃, the minor tautomer of phosphorous acrid. The structure of P₄O₆ is like that of P_ivO_x without the terminal oxide groups.

Phosphorus(I) and phosphorus(II)

These compounds generally feature P–P bonds.^[xv] Examples include catenated derivatives of phosphine and organophosphines. Compounds containing P=P double bonds take likewise been observed, although they are rare.

Phosphides and phosphines

Phosphides arise past reaction of metals with red phosphorus. The alkali metals (group one) and alkaline metal earth metals tin can form ionic compounds containing the phosphide ion, Pⁱⁱⁱ⁻. These compounds react with water to form phosphine. Other phosphides, for case Na_iiiP₇, are known for these reactive metals. With the transition metals as well as the monophosphides at that place are metal-rich phosphides, which are generally hard refractory compounds with a metallic lustre, and phosphorus-rich phosphides which are less stable and include semiconductors.^[xv] Schreibersite is a naturally occurring metal-rich phosphide plant in meteorites. The structures of the metallic-rich and phosphorus-rich phosphides tin can be complex.

Phosphine (PH₃) and its organic derivatives (PR_three) are structural analogues of ammonia (NH₃), but the bond angles at phosphorus are closer to ninety° for phosphine and its organic derivatives. It is an ill-smelling, toxic compound. Phosphorus has an oxidation number of −3 in phosphine. Phosphine is produced by hydrolysis of calcium phosphide, Ca₃P₂. Unlike ammonia, phosphine is oxidised past air. Phosphine is also far less basic than ammonia. Other phosphines are known which comprise chains of upwards to nine phosphorus atoms and have the formula P _n H _n+2.^[15] The highly flammable gas diphosphine (P_iiH_iv) is an analogue of hydrazine.

Oxoacids

Phosphorous oxoacids are all-encompassing, often commercially important, and sometimes structurally complicated. They all have acidic protons bound to oxygen atoms, some have nonacidic protons that are bonded directly to phosphorus and some comprise phosphorus - phosphorus bonds.^[fifteen] Although many oxoacids of phosphorus are formed, but 9 are commercially important, and 3 of them, hypophosphorous acid, phosphorous acrid, and phosphoric acid, are especially of import.

Oxidation country	Formula	Proper noun	Acidic protons	Compounds
+1	HH2PO2	hypophosphorous acid	1	acid, salts
+iii	H2HPOthree	phosphorous acid	ii	acrid, salts
+three	HPOtwo	metaphosphorous acid	ane	salts
+three	H3POiii	(ortho)phosphorous acid	3	acid, salts
+four	HfourP2Ohalf-dozen	hypophosphoric acrid	4	acrid, salts
+5	(HPO3) northward	metaphosphoric acids	n	salts (due north = iii,4,vi)
+5	H(HPO3) northward OH	polyphosphoric acids	due north+ii	acids, salts (due north = i-6)
+5	H5PiiiO10	tripolyphosphoric acid	three	salts
+v	H4PiiO7	pyrophosphoric acid	4	acid, salts
+5	H3PO4	(ortho)phosphoric acrid	3	acid, salts

Nitrides

The PN molecule is considered unstable, but is a product of crystalline phosphorus nitride decomposition at 1100 Thou. Similarly, H_twoPN is considered unstable, and phosphorus nitride halogens like F₂PN, Cl₂PN, Br_iiPN, and I₂PN oligomerise into circadian Polyphosphazenes. For example, compounds of the formula (PNCl_two) _{due north} exist mainly as rings such every bit the trimer hexachlorophosphazene. The phosphazenes arise past handling of phosphorus pentachloride with ammonium chloride:

PCl_five + NH₄Cl → ane/n (NPCl₂) _northward + iv HCl

When the chloride groups are replaced by alkoxide (RO⁻), a family of polymers is produced with potentially useful properties.^[45]

Sulfides

Phosphorus forms a wide range of sulfides, where the phosphorus can be in P(V), P(III) or other oxidation states. The three-fold symmetric P_ivS_iii is used in strike-anywhere matches. P_ivS_ten and P_ivO_ten accept analogous structures.^[46] Mixed oxyhalides and oxyhydrides of phosphorus(Three) are almost unknown.

Organophosphorus compounds

Compounds with P-C and P-O-C bonds are oftentimes classified equally organophosphorus compounds. They are widely used commercially. The PCl_three serves every bit a source of P³⁺ in routes to organophosphorus(III) compounds. For example, it is the precursor to triphenylphosphine:

PCl₃ + 6 Na + three C₆H₅Cl → P(C₆H₅)₃ + half-dozen NaCl

Treatment of phosphorus trihalides with alcohols and phenols gives phosphites, e.g. triphenylphosphite:

PCl₃ + 3 C_half-dozenH₅OH → P(OC₆H₅)₃ + 3 HCl

Similar reactions occur for phosphorus oxychloride, affording triphenylphosphate:

OPCl₃ + 3 C₆H₅OH → OP(OC_sixH₅)_three + 3 HCl

History

Etymology

The name Phosphorus in Ancient Greece was the name for the planet Venus and is derived from the Greek words (φῶς = calorie-free, φέρω = carry), which roughly translates as light-bringer or low-cal carrier.^[19] (In Greek mythology and tradition, Augerinus (Αυγερινός = morning star, even so in use today), Hesperus or Hesperinus (΄Εσπερος or Εσπερινός or Αποσπερίτης = evening star, still in utilise today) and Eosphorus (Εωσφόρος = dawnbearer, non in apply for the planet afterwards Christianity) are shut homologues, and also associated with Phosphorus-the-forenoon-star).

According to the Oxford English Lexicon, the correct spelling of the element is phosphorus. The word phosphorous is the adjectival grade of the P³⁺ valence: then, just as sulfur forms sulfurous and sulfuric compounds, phosphorus forms phosphorous compounds (e.m., phosphorous acrid) and P⁵⁺ valence phosphoric compounds (e.1000., phosphoric acids and phosphates).

Discovery

The discovery of phosphorus, the get-go chemical element to be discovered that was not known since aboriginal times,^[47] is credited to the German alchemist Hennig Brand in 1669, although others might take discovered phosphorus around the same time.^[48] Brand experimented with urine, which contains considerable quantities of dissolved phosphates from normal metabolism.^[19] Working in Hamburg, Brand attempted to create the fabled philosopher'south stone through the distillation of some salts by evaporating urine, and in the process produced a white material that glowed in the dark and burned brilliantly. It was named phosphorus mirabilis ("miraculous bearer of light").^[49]

Make'south process originally involved letting urine represent days until it gave off a terrible smell. Then he boiled it downwards to a paste, heated this paste to a high temperature, and led the vapours through water, where he hoped they would condense to gold. Instead, he obtained a white, waxy substance that glowed in the nighttime. Make had discovered phosphorus. Specifically, Brand produced ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate, (NH
₄ )NaHPO
₄ . While the quantities were substantially correct (it took almost 1,100 litres [290 U.s.a. gal] of urine to brand about lx 1000 of phosphorus), it was unnecessary to let the urine to rot offset. Afterwards scientists discovered that fresh urine yielded the same amount of phosphorus.^[31]

Brand at kickoff tried to go on the method underground,^[fifty] but subsequently sold the recipe for 200 thalers to D. Krafft from Dresden.^[xix] Krafft toured much of Europe with it, including England, where he met with Robert Boyle. The secret—that the substance was made from urine—leaked out, and Johann Kunckel (1630–1703) was able to reproduce it in Sweden (1678). Later, Boyle in London (1680) too managed to make phosphorus, maybe with the aid of his assistant, Ambrose Godfrey-Hanckwitz. Godfrey subsequently made a business of the industry of phosphorus.

Boyle states that Krafft gave him no data as to the preparation of phosphorus other than that information technology was derived from "somewhat that belonged to the torso of man". This gave Boyle a valuable clue, so that he, too, managed to make phosphorus, and published the method of its manufacture.^[xix] Later he improved Brand's process past using sand in the reaction (even so using urine as base of operations textile),

4 NaPO
_three + two SiO
_ii + 10 C → ii Na
₂ SiO
₃ + ten CO + P
₄

Robert Boyle was the starting time to employ phosphorus to ignite sulfur-tipped wooden splints, forerunners of our mod matches, in 1680.^[51]

Phosphorus was the 13th element to be discovered. Because of its tendency to spontaneously combust when left alone in air, it is sometimes referred to equally "the Devil'due south chemical element".^[52]

Os ash and guano

Antoine Lavoisier recognized phosphorus as an element in 1777 after Johan Gottlieb Gahn and Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in 1769, showed that calcium phosphate (Ca
₃ (PO
₄ )
₂ ) is found in bones by obtaining elemental phosphorus from bone ash.^[53]

Bone ash was the major source of phosphorus until the 1840s. The method started past roasting basic, then employed the use of burn clay retorts encased in a very hot brick furnace to dribble out the highly toxic elemental phosphorus product.^[54] Alternately, precipitated phosphates could be made from ground-up basic that had been de-greased and treated with stiff acids. White phosphorus could and then exist made by heating the precipitated phosphates, mixed with basis coal or charcoal in an iron pot, and distilling off phosphorus vapour in a antiphon.^[55] Carbon monoxide and other flammable gases produced during the reduction process were burnt off in a flare stack.

In the 1840s, world phosphate production turned to the mining of tropical island deposits formed from bird and bat guano (see also Guano Islands Human activity). These became an important source of phosphates for fertiliser in the latter one-half of the 19th century.^[56]

Phosphate rock

Phosphate rock, which usually contains calcium phosphate, was first used in 1850 to make phosphorus, and post-obit the introduction of the electric arc furnace by James Burgess Readman in 1888^[57] (patented 1889),^[58] elemental phosphorus production switched from the bone-ash heating, to electric arc production from phosphate rock. Later on the depletion of world guano sources about the same time, mineral phosphates became the major source of phosphate fertiliser production. Phosphate rock production greatly increased after World War II, and remains the primary global source of phosphorus and phosphorus chemicals today. Run into the article on peak phosphorus for more information on the history and present land of phosphate mining. Phosphate rock remains a feedstock in the fertiliser industry, where it is treated with sulfuric acid to produce various "superphosphate" fertiliser products.

Incendiaries

White phosphorus was first made commercially in the 19th century for the match industry. This used bone ash for a phosphate source, as described in a higher place. The bone-ash process became obsolete when the submerged-arc furnace for phosphorus production was introduced to reduce phosphate rock.^{[59] [60]} The electric furnace method immune production to increase to the betoken where phosphorus could be used in weapons of war.^{[29] [61]} In Globe State of war I, it was used in incendiaries, smoke screens and tracer bullets.^[61] A special incendiary bullet was adult to shoot at hydrogen-filled Zeppelins over Britain (hydrogen beingness highly flammable).^[61] During Earth State of war Two, Molotov cocktails made of phosphorus dissolved in petrol were distributed in Britain to specially selected civilians within the British resistance operation, for defense; and phosphorus incendiary bombs were used in war on a big scale. Called-for phosphorus is hard to extinguish and if it splashes onto human skin it has horrific effects.^[15]

Early matches used white phosphorus in their composition, which was dangerous due to its toxicity. Murders, suicides and accidental poisonings resulted from its utilize. (An apocryphal tale tells of a woman attempting to murder her hubby with white phosphorus in his food, which was detected by the stew's giving off luminous steam).^[29] In addition, exposure to the vapours gave lucifer workers a severe necrosis of the bones of the jaw, known every bit "phossy jaw". When a safe process for manufacturing red phosphorus was discovered, with its far lower flammability and toxicity, laws were enacted, nether the Berne Convention (1906), requiring its adoption as a safer alternative for lucifer manufacture.^[62] The toxicity of white phosphorus led to discontinuation of its use in matches.^[63] The Allies used phosphorus incendiary bombs in World War II to destroy Hamburg, the place where the "miraculous bearer of lite" was first discovered.^[49]

Production

Mining of phosphate rock in Nauru

In 2017, the USGS estimated 68 billion tons of world reserves, where reserve figures refer to the amount assumed recoverable at current marketplace prices; 0.261 billion tons were mined in 2016.^[64] Critical to gimmicky agriculture, its annual demand is ascension nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population.^[39] The product of phosphorus may have peaked before 2011 and some scientists predict reserves will exist depleted in before the stop of the 21st Century."^{[65] [39] [66]} Phosphorus comprises almost 0.i% by mass of the boilerplate stone, and consequently, the Earth's supply is vast, though dilute.^[xv]

Wet process

Nearly phosphorus-bearing material is for agriculture fertilisers. In this example where the standards of purity are modest, phosphorus is obtained from phosphate rock by what is called the "wet procedure." The minerals are treated with sulfuric acid to give phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid is then neutralized to requite diverse phosphate salts, which comprise fertilizers. In the wet procedure, phosphorus does not undergo redox.^[67] Almost five tons of phosphogypsum waste are generated per ton of phosphoric acrid production. Annually, the estimated generation of phosphogypsum worldwide is 100 to 280 Mt.^[68]

Thermal process

For the apply of phosphorus in drugs, detergents, and foodstuff, the standards of purity are high, which led to the evolution of the wet process. In this process, phosphate minerals are converted to white phosphorus, which tin can be purified by distillation. The white phosphorus is then oxidised to phosphoric acid and subsequently neutralised with a base to give phosphate salts. The thermal procedure is energy intensive.^[67] Soon, near i,000,000 brusk tons (910,000 t) of elemental phosphorus is produced annually. Calcium phosphate (phosphate rock), mostly mined in Florida and North Africa, can be heated to i,200–1,500 °C with sand, which is mostly SiO
₂ , and coke to produce P
₄ . The P
_four product, existence volatile, is readily isolated:^[69]

4 Ca₅(PO₄)₃F + eighteen SiO₂ + 30 C → iii P₄ + 30 CO + 18 CaSiO₃ + 2 CaF_two

2 Ca_iii(PO_four)_two + 6 SiO₂ + x C → 6 CaSiO₃ + 10 CO + P_four

Side products from the thermal procedure include ferrophosphorus, a rough form of Fe_iiP, resulting from iron impurities in the mineral precursors. The silicate slag is a useful construction fabric. The fluoride is sometimes recovered for use in water fluoridation. More problematic is a "mud" containing pregnant amounts of white phosphorus. Production of white phosphorus is conducted in big facilities in function because it is energy intensive. The white phosphorus is transported in molten form. Some major accidents have occurred during transportation.^[70]

Historical routes

Historically, before the development of mineral-based extractions, white phosphorus was isolated on an industrial scale from bone ash.^[71] In this process, the tricalcium phosphate in bone ash is converted to monocalcium phosphate with sulfuric acid:

Ca₃(PO_four)_two + 2 H₂SO₄ → Ca(H₂PO_four)_ii + two CaSO₄

Monocalcium phosphate is then dehydrated to the corresponding metaphosphate:

Ca(H₂PO_iv)₂ → Ca(PO₃)₂ + two H₂O

When ignited to a white heat (~1300C) with charcoal, calcium metaphosphate yields two-thirds of its weight of white phosphorus while i-third of the phosphorus remains in the residuum as calcium orthophosphate:

three Ca(PO₃)_ii + ten C → Ca₃(PO_iv)₂ + 10 CO + P₄

Applications

Fertiliser

Phosphorus is an essential institute nutrient (the most oft limiting food, after nitrogen),^[72] and the bulk of all phosphorus product is in concentrated phosphoric acids for agronomics fertilisers, containing as much as lxx% to 75% P₂O₅. That led to large increase in phosphate (PO_four ³⁻) product in the second half of the 20th century.^[39] Bogus phosphate fecundation is necessary because phosphorus is essential to all living organisms; it is involved in energy transfers, strength of root and stems, photosynthesis, the expansion of establish roots, formation of seeds and flowers, and other important factors effecting overall institute health and genetics.^[72]

Natural phosphorus-bearing compounds are mostly inaccessible to plants because of the low solubility and mobility in soil.^[73] Most phosphorus is very stable in the soil minerals or organic matter of the soil. Fifty-fifty when phosphorus is added in manure or fertilizer it tin can become fixed in the soil. Therefore, the natural bicycle of phosphorus is very dull. Some of the fixed phosphorus is released over again over time, sustaining wild plant growth, even so, more is needed to sustain intensive cultivation of crops.^[74] Fertiliser is oftentimes in the course of superphosphate of lime, a mixture of calcium dihydrogen phosphate (Ca(H₂PO₄)₂), and calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO₄·2H₂O) produced reacting sulfuric acid and water with calcium phosphate.

Processing phosphate minerals with sulfuric acid for obtaining fertiliser is so of import to the global economy that this is the chief industrial market for sulfuric acid and the greatest industrial utilise of elemental sulfur.^[75]

Widely used compounds	Utilize
Ca(H2PO4)2·HtwoO	Baking powder and fertilisers
CaHPO4·2H2O	Fauna food additive, toothpowder
H3POiv	Manufacture of phosphate fertilisers
PCl3	Industry of POCl3 and pesticides
POClthree	Industry of plasticiser
PfourDue south10	Manufacturing of additives and pesticides
Na5PthreeO10	Detergents

Organophosphorus

White phosphorus is widely used to make organophosphorus compounds through intermediate phosphorus chlorides and two phosphorus sulfides, phosphorus pentasulfide and phosphorus sesquisulfide.^[76] Organophosphorus compounds have many applications, including in plasticisers, flame retardants, pesticides, extraction agents, nerve agents and water treatment.^{[15] [77]}

Metallurgical aspects

Phosphorus is also an of import component in steel production, in the making of phosphor bronze, and in many other related products.^{[78] [79]} Phosphorus is added to metallic copper during its smelting process to react with oxygen present as an impurity in copper and to produce phosphorus-containing copper (CuOFP) alloys with a higher hydrogen embrittlement resistance than normal copper.^[fourscore]

Matches

Match hitting surface made of a mixture of red phosphorus, glue and ground drinking glass. The glass pulverization is used to increase the friction.

The commencement hitting match with a phosphorus caput was invented by Charles Sauria in 1830. These matches (and subsequent modifications) were made with heads of white phosphorus, an oxygen-releasing compound (potassium chlorate, lead dioxide, or sometimes nitrate), and a binder. They were poisonous to the workers in manufacture,^[81] sensitive to storage conditions, toxic if ingested, and hazardous when accidentally ignited on a rough surface.^{[82] [83]} Production in several countries was banned between 1872 and 1925.^[84] The international Berne Convention, ratified in 1906, prohibited the utilize of white phosphorus in matches.

In issue, phosphorous matches were gradually replaced past safer alternatives. Around 1900 French chemists Henri Sévène and Emile David Cahen invented the modern strike-anywhere match, wherein the white phosphorus was replaced by phosphorus sesquisulfide (P₄S_iii), a not-toxic and non-pyrophoric chemical compound that ignites under friction. For a fourth dimension these safer strike-anywhere matches were quite popular but in the long run they were superseded by the mod safety match.

Safety matches are very hard to ignite on any surface other than a special striker strip. The strip contains not-toxic cerise phosphorus and the match head potassium chlorate, an oxygen-releasing compound. When struck, modest amounts of abrasion from match head and striker strip are mixed intimately to make a small quantity of Armstrong'south mixture, a very touch sensitive composition. The fine powder ignites immediately and provides the initial spark to set off the friction match caput. Prophylactic matches separate the two components of the ignition mixture until the match is struck. This is the central safe advantage equally information technology prevents accidental ignition. All the same, prophylactic matches, invented in 1844 by Gustaf Erik Pasch and marketplace set by the 1860s, didn't proceeds consumer acceptance until the prohibition of white phosphorus. Using a dedicated striker strip was considered clumsy.^{[20] [76] [85]}

Water softening

Sodium tripolyphosphate fabricated from phosphoric acid is used in laundry detergents in some countries, just banned for this use in others.^[22] This compound softens the water to enhance the performance of the detergents and to prevent piping/boiler tube corrosion.^[86]

Miscellaneous

• Phosphates are used to make special glasses for sodium lamps.^[22]
• Bone-ash, calcium phosphate, is used in the product of fine china.^[22]
• Phosphoric acrid fabricated from elemental phosphorus is used in nutrient applications such every bit soft drinks, and as a starting point for food class phosphates.^[76] These include mono-calcium phosphate for baking powder and sodium tripolyphosphate.^[76] Phosphates are used to improve the characteristics of candy meat and cheese, and in toothpaste.^[76]
• White phosphorus, chosen "WP" (slang term "Willie Peter") is used in military applications equally incendiary bombs, for smoke-screening as smoke pots and smoke bombs, and in tracer ammunition. Information technology is also a function of an obsolete M34 White Phosphorus US mitt grenade. This multipurpose grenade was by and large used for signaling, fume screens, and inflammation; information technology could also crusade severe burns and had a psychological impact on the enemy.^{[87] [88]} Military uses of white phosphorus are constrained by international law.
• ³²P and ³³P are used as radioactive tracers in biochemical laboratories.^[89]

Biological role

Inorganic phosphorus in the grade of the phosphate PO ³⁻

_four is required for all known forms of life.^[xc] Phosphorus plays a major function in the structural framework of Dna and RNA. Living cells apply phosphate to ship cellular free energy with adenosine triphosphate (ATP), necessary for every cellular process that uses free energy. ATP is also important for phosphorylation, a cardinal regulatory event in cells. Phospholipids are the chief structural components of all cellular membranes. Calcium phosphate salts assist in stiffening bones.^[15] Biochemists usually use the abbreviation "Pi" to refer to inorganic phosphate.^[91]

Every living prison cell is encased in a membrane that separates information technology from its surroundings. Cellular membranes are composed of a phospholipid matrix and proteins, typically in the class of a bilayer. Phospholipids are derived from glycerol with 2 of the glycerol hydroxyl (OH) protons replaced by fat acids as an ester, and the third hydroxyl proton has been replaced with phosphate bonded to some other booze.^[92]

An average adult human contains well-nigh 0.7 kg of phosphorus, nigh 85–90% in bones and teeth in the course of apatite, and the remainder in soft tissues and extracellular fluids (~1%). The phosphorus content increases from nigh 0.v% past mass in infancy to 0.65–one.1% by mass in adults. Average phosphorus concentration in the blood is well-nigh 0.4 1000/L, about 70% of that is organic and 30% inorganic phosphates.^[93] An adult with healthy nutrition consumes and excretes almost 1–3 grams of phosphorus per twenty-four hour period, with consumption in the grade of inorganic phosphate and phosphorus-containing biomolecules such as nucleic acids and phospholipids; and excretion almost exclusively in the form of phosphate ions such as H
₂ PO ⁻
_iv and HPO ²⁻
_four . But about 0.1% of body phosphate circulates in the claret, paralleling the amount of phosphate available to soft tissue cells.

Bone and teeth enamel

The main component of bone is hydroxyapatite as well equally baggy forms of calcium phosphate, possibly including carbonate. Hydroxyapatite is the principal component of tooth enamel. Water fluoridation enhances the resistance of teeth to decay by the partial conversion of this mineral to the still harder material called fluoroapatite:^[xv]

Ca
_v (PO
₄ )
₃ OH + F ⁻
→ Ca
₅ (PO
₄ )
₃ F + OH ⁻

Phosphorus deficiency

In medicine, phosphate deficiency syndrome may be caused by malnutrition, by failure to absorb phosphate, and by metabolic syndromes that draw phosphate from the blood (such as in refeeding syndrome afterwards malnutrition^[94]) or passing too much of information technology into the urine. All are characterised by hypophosphatemia, which is a condition of depression levels of soluble phosphate levels in the claret serum and within the cells. Symptoms of hypophosphatemia include neurological dysfunction and disruption of muscle and blood cells due to lack of ATP. Besides much phosphate can lead to diarrhoea and calcification (hardening) of organs and soft tissue, and tin can interfere with the body's power to utilize iron, calcium, magnesium, and zinc.^[95]

Phosphorus is an essential macromineral for plants, which is studied extensively in edaphology to sympathise plant uptake from soil systems. Phosphorus is a limiting cistron in many ecosystems; that is, the scarcity of phosphorus limits the charge per unit of organism growth. An excess of phosphorus can as well be problematic, especially in aquatic systems where eutrophication sometimes leads to algal blooms.^[39]

Nutrition

Dietary recommendations

The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for phosphorus in 1997. If at that place is not sufficient data to found EARs and RDAs, an gauge designated Adequate Intake (AI) is used instead. The current EAR for phosphorus for people ages xix and upwards is 580 mg/day. The RDA is 700 mg/day. RDAs are higher than EARs so every bit to identify amounts that volition comprehend people with higher than boilerplate requirements. RDA for pregnancy and lactation are as well 700 mg/day. For people ages one–18 years the RDA increases with age from 460 to 1250 mg/day. As for rubber, the IOM sets Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of phosphorus the UL is 4000 mg/twenty-four hours. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).^[96]

The European Food Safety Say-so (EFSA) refers to the collective ready of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL divers the aforementioned every bit in Us. For people ages fifteen and older, including pregnancy and lactation, the AI is set at 550 mg/day. For children ages 4–ten the AI is 440 mg/day, and for ages eleven–17 information technology is 640 mg/day. These AIs are lower than the U.S RDAs. In both systems, teenagers need more than adults.^[97] The European Food Condom Authority reviewed the same prophylactic question and decided that there was non sufficient information to set a UL.^[98]

For U.S. nutrient and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For phosphorus labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was yard mg, but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 1250 mg to bring it into understanding with the RDA.^{[99] [100]} A table of the old and new developed daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

Food sources

The main food sources for phosphorus are the aforementioned equally those containing protein, although proteins do not comprise phosphorus. For case, milk, meat, and soya typically too have phosphorus. As a rule, if a diet has sufficient protein and calcium, the corporeality of phosphorus is probably sufficient.^[101]

Precautions

Organic compounds of phosphorus form a broad class of materials; many are required for life, just some are extremely toxic. Fluorophosphate esters are among the nigh strong neurotoxins known. A wide range of organophosphorus compounds are used for their toxicity as pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, etc.) and weaponised as nerve agents confronting enemy humans. Most inorganic phosphates are relatively nontoxic and essential nutrients.^[15]

The white phosphorus allotrope presents a significant hazard considering it ignites in air and produces phosphoric acid residual. Chronic white phosphorus poisoning leads to necrosis of the jaw called "phossy jaw". White phosphorus is toxic, causing severe liver damage on ingestion and may crusade a condition known as "Smoking Stool Syndrome".^[102]

In the past, external exposure to elemental phosphorus was treated by washing the afflicted area with 2% copper sulfate solution to form harmless compounds that are then washed abroad. Co-ordinate to the recent US Navy's Handling of Chemical Agent Casualties and Conventional Military Chemic Injuries: FM8-285: Part 2 Conventional Armed services Chemical Injuries, "Cupric (copper(II)) sulfate has been used past U.S. personnel in the past and is still being used by some nations. All the same, copper sulfate is toxic and its utilize will exist discontinued. Copper sulfate may produce kidney and cognitive toxicity as well as intravascular hemolysis."^[103]

The manual suggests instead "a bicarbonate solution to neutralise phosphoric acid, which will then allow removal of visible white phosphorus. Particles often tin can be located by their emission of smoke when air strikes them, or by their phosphorescence in the dark. In dark environs, fragments are seen as luminescent spots. Promptly debride the burn if the patient's condition will permit removal of $.25 of WP (white phosphorus) that might be captivated later and possibly produce systemic poisoning. Exercise NOT apply oily-based ointments until it is certain that all WP has been removed. Following complete removal of the particles, care for the lesions equally thermal burns."^{[note one] [ citation needed ]} Equally white phosphorus readily mixes with oils, any oily substances or ointments are not recommended until the surface area is thoroughly cleaned and all white phosphorus removed.

People can be exposed to phosphorus in the workplace past inhalation, ingestion, peel contact, and center contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the phosphorus exposure limit (Permissible exposure limit) in the workplace at 0.1 mg/m^three over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safe and Wellness (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/thou³ over an eight-hour workday. At levels of v mg/m³, phosphorus is immediately dangerous to life and health.^[104]

Us DEA Listing I status

Phosphorus can reduce elemental iodine to hydroiodic acrid, which is a reagent effective for reducing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine.^[105] For this reason, scarlet and white phosphorus were designated by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration equally List I precursor chemicals nether 21 CFR 1310.02 effective on November 17, 2001.^[106] In the United States, handlers of red or white phosphorus are subject field to stringent regulatory controls.^{[106] [107] [108]}

Meet also

• Phosphorus cycle

Notes

1. ^ WP, (white phosphorus), exhibits chemoluminescence upon exposure to air and if there is any WP in the wound, covered past tissue or fluids such equally blood serum, it will non glow until it is exposed to air, which requires a very dark room and dark-adapted eyes to meet clearly

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Bibliography

• Emsley, John (2000). The Shocking history of Phosphorus. A biography of the Devil's Chemical element. London: MacMillan. ISBN0-333-76638-5.
• Parkes, K. D.; Mellor, J. W. (1939). Mellor'southward Mod Inorganic Chemistry. Longman's Dark-green and Co.
• Podger, Hugh (2002). Albright & Wilson. The Last 50 years. Studley: Brewin Books. ISBN1-85858-223-7.
• Threlfall, Richard Due east. (1951). The Story of 100 years of Phosphorus Making: 1851–1951. Oldbury: Albright & Wilson Ltd.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus

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